Suppose You Know the Mean Distance Between Both Mercury and the Sun

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Superconductivity

Co-ordinate to the prominent scientist in this country V.L. Ginzburg

the latest world achievements in the field of superconductivity

hateful a revolution in engineering science and manufacture. Recent spectacular

breakthroughs^ in superconductors may be compared with the

physics discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. They

are likely to bring the mankind to the threshold of a new technological

age. Prestige, economical and armed services benefits could well come up

to the nation that first volition master this new field of physics. Superconductors

were in one case thought to be physically incommunicable. Just in

1911 superconductivity was discovered by a Dutch physicist

1000. Onnes, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his lowtemperature

enquiry. He found the electric resistivity of a mercury

wire to disappear all of a sudden when cooled below a temperature

of 4 Kelvin (-269 �C). Accented nothing is known to be 0 K. This discovery

was a completely unexpected phenomenon. He as well discovered

that a superconducting material tin be returned to the normal

state either past passing a sufficiently large current through information technology or by

applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field to information technology. But at that fourth dimension

there was no theory to explicate this.

For nearly fifty years after K. Onnes' discovery theorists were

unable to develop a key theory of superconductivity. In

1950 physicists Landau and Ginzburg fabricated a neat contribution to

the development of superconductivity theory. They introduced a

model which proved to be useful in agreement electromagnetic

properties of superconductors. Finally, in 1957 a satisfactory theory

was presented by American physicists, which won for them in

1972 the Nobel Prize in physics. Enquiry in superconductors became

especially active since a discovery fabricated in 1986 by IBM^ scientists

in Zurich. They establish a metal ceramic compound to

get a superconductor at a temperature well above^ the previously

achieved record of 23 Thou.

It was hard to believe information technology. Nevertheless, in 1987 American physicist

Paul Chu informed near a much more sensational discovery:

he and his colleagues produced superconductivity at an unbelievable

before temperature 98 � in a special ceramic textile. At in one case

in all leading laboratories throughout the world superconductors of

critical temperature 100 � and higher (that is, higher up the humid

temperature of liquid nitrogen) were obtained. Thus, potential

technical uses of high temperature superconductivity seemed to be

possible and practical. Scientists take found a ceramic fabric

that works at room temperature. But getting superconductors from

the laboratory into product will be no easy task. While the new

superconductors are easily fabricated, their quality is frequently uneven.

Some tend to suspension when produced, others lose their superconductivity

within minutes or hours. All are extremely difficult to fabricate

into wires. Moreover, scientists lack a total understanding of

how ceramics become superconductors. This fact makes develop-

ing new substances largely a random process. This is likely to

continue until theorists requite a fuller explanation of how superconductivity

is produced in new materials.

Notes to the Text

1. spectacular breakthroughs -- ������������� ��������,

���������� (���������)

2. IBM � �������� �� �� ��

iii. well above � ������� ����

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���������� ten.����������� ����� �� � �������� �� �������.

1. What is this text about? 2. What is the miracle of superconductivity?

3. Who was the first to detect the phenomenon?

4. What scientists practice you lot know who take worked in the field of superconductivity?

5. What materials are the best superconductors?

6. Is it possible to return superconducting materials to the normal

land? vii. How can it exist done? viii. In what fields of science and applied science

can the phenomenon of superconductivity exist used?

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������ ��. ��������� ������������ �����������.

1. The latest achievements in superconductivity mean a revolution

in technology and industry. 2. Superconductors were once

thought to exist physically incommunicable. 3. The achievements in superconductivity

cannot be compared with the discoveries that led to

electronics and nuclear power. four. The electrical resistivity of a mercury

wire disappears when cooled below 4 K. 5. A superconducting

material cannot be returned to the normal state. 6. Landau and

Ginzburg introduced a model which was useful in understanding

electromagnetic properties of superconductors. 7. Scientists from

IBM found a ceramic material that became a superconductor at a

temperature of 23 K. 8. Potential technical uses of high temperature

superconductivity are unlikely to exist possible and practical.

���������� 12.������� � ������ �� ������������ �����������.

���������� xiii.�������� ���� �����������, ����������.

one. Designers report � new manned craft to be able to submerge to

the depth of 21,000 feet. A new manned arts and crafts is reported to be able

to submerge to the depth of 21,000 feet. 2. Nosotros know radio navigation

stations to exist located at different places around the world to guide

the pilots. Radio navigation stations are known to be located all over

the globe to guide the pilots. iii. People considered dirigibles to be

too irksome and unreliable, that is why they were non used for a long

time. Dirigibles were considered to be slow and unreliable. 4. Experts

expect the new submersible arts and crafts to move circular the ocean

floor like a sports auto. The new submersible craft is expected to

move circular the ocean floor similar a sports automobile. 5. Scientists in many

countries consider propeller engines to be much more than economical.

Propeller engines are considered to exist much more economical.

six. We know propeller planes to wing slower than jet planes, therefore,

a new ventilator engine with a propeller has been built. But as propeller

planes are known to fly slower than jet planes a new ventilator

engine with a propeller has been congenital.

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1. The phenomenon of superconductivity appears to have been

discovered equally early every bit 1911. two. Before 1911 superconductivity was causeless

to be impossible. 3. Contempo discoveries in superconductivity

made scientists look for new conducting materials and for applied

applications of the phenomenon. 4. The latest achievements in the

field of superconductivity are certain to make a revolution in engineering science

and industry. five. Recommendations from physicists volition allow

the necessary measures to be taken to protect the air from

pollution. 6. Lasers are sure to do some jobs meliorate and at much

lower cost than other devices. 7. M. Faraday supposed a light beam

to opposite its polarisation equally it passed through a magnetised crystal.

8. Superconductors are probable to find applications nosotros don't even

remember of at present. nine. A Dutch physicist establish a superconducting

material to render to normal state when a potent magnetic field was

applied. 10. Properties of materials obtained in infinite testify to be

much ameliorate than those produced on Earth. 11. There are prospects

for lasers to be used in long distance communication and for transmission

of free energy to space stations. 12. The electrical resistivity of a

mercury wire was constitute to disappear when cooled to �269 �C.

13. Additional radio transmitters let the airplane pilot make his approach to

an ai�ort by watching his flight instruments. fourteen. There seems to be

a lot of alloys and compounds that become superconductors under

certain conditions.

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���������� 15.����������, � ����� ����� ���� ��������� �����.

resistant, resist, resistance, resistor, resistivity; superconductivity,

superconductive, superconductor, superconducting; theory,

theorist, theoretical, conjecture; physics, physicist, physical, physically;

explain, explainable, explanation; store, storage, storable.

���������� xvi.������� �������� ����� ��������������� ����������.

���������� � achievable, achievement, achieve;

����������� � electronics, electronic, electron;

����� � easily, easy, easier;

������������� � satisfy, satisfactory, satisfaction;

������������� � reality, realise, really.

���������� 17.���������� ����� � ��������� -ward (-wards), ������������

�����������.

toward(s), forrard(s), backward(s), later on(s), downwards(s),

outward(due south), northward(due south), southward(south), rearward(s), homeward(

south), sideward(s), windward(south), upward(s).

���������� 18.������� ����� � ������������� ������������ ��������������

�����.

There are � few words taken over from Latin and Greek that

still retain their original plurals in English. In some cases we tin

use either. Formulas is seen more often than formulae. Antenna �

antennae (pi). Many recollect that media, strata and phenomena are

all singular. They aren't. Data, a plural, is used both ways.

Here are some foreign singular and plural forms of words often

used in English. Latin: medium (a ways of mass advice)

� media, nucleus (���� �����) � nuclei; Greek: assay �

analyses; axis � axes; crisis � crises; hypothesis � hypotheses;

phenomenon � phenomena.

���������� xix.������� �������� � ��������,

beneath � higher up; useful � useless; like shooting fish in a barrel � difficult; field �

sphere; to run into demands � to encounter requirements (needs); full �

complete; to utilise � to apply; to become � to obtain; moreover � also;

sufficient � plenty; likely � unlikely; to continue � to discontinue;

conductivity � nonconductivity; to vary � to alter; to

atomic number 82 to � to outcome in; contempo � latest; reward � disadvantage;

low � loftier; believable � unbelievable; to lose � to find; tiny �

huge; liquid -- solid; unexpected � expected; common � ordinary.

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1. The climate in this part of the earth is the most suitable for

people to alive in. It is neithertoo hot, nortoo common cold. 2. Many lasers

give off invisible radiation eitherinfrared orultraviolet. 3. There is

the tropical zone on eitherside of the Equator. four. Information technology is possible to

dissever all countries into classes: adult and developing countries.

Various criteria may be used to include a particular country in

eitherof the ii categories. 5. The numbers are eitherodd oreven.

6. Such satellites can contain eithertelevision cameras orphotographic

equipment for transmitting pictures to Earth.

�I see you lot are not a scientific person, my friend�.

�Why do you say that?�

�You do non have good care of your car. Y'all have no water in

your radiator�.

�I thought that I had enough of water�.

�You have no oil either.You will ruin your car if yous run information technology

without oil�.

�Have I plenty of h2o in the storage battery?�

�No, y'all haven't a driblet�.

�I oasis't any air in my spare tire, either�.

�Have you any actress tubes?�

�No, I oasis't, but I accept a good tube in the spare tire. I had

four new tubes when I met a man who was having tire trouble. He

hadn't an extra tube. I let him accept my tubes. I suppose he was not

a scientific person either.His auto was in a worse status than

mine is.�

How Did It All Begin?

Do you e'er wonder why people do or wear, or say sure

things? Why practice they milk shake hands when they meet? Many things

you say and do could have reasons that date back thousands of

years.

For instance, it is very strange to recollect that shaking easily � a

friendly custom (������) today � was originally a ways of keeping

a stranger's (����������) weapon hand where it could do no

harm.

In primitive times, man never went virtually without some weapon

of defence � usually a club (�������). Upon meeting a stranger a

man could eitherstand and fight or turn abroad before discovering if

the stranger was a friend or an enemy, or greet the stranger and

mayhap become friends.

Simply how could he be sure the stranger would be friendly and

how could the stranger trust in return? There was only ane way to

prove friendly intentions and that was for both men to lay downwards

their weapons and hold out empty hands. For added insurance,

each would attain for the other's correct hand. As long as both men's

hands were safely clasped, neithercould harm the other. Therefore,

a handshake originally was a means of self-defence.

���������� 21.����� ����������� ����� �������� � ��������� ��.

teach, fighting, wore, frozen, letting, carried on, laid downward.

���������� 22.���������� � ���������� ����� ��� �������.

The ancient Greeks are known to have been keen watchers of

the sky and as well not bad thinkers. As they watched the heaven night after

dark, information technology was natural for them to think that the Earth stood and the

stars, planets, dominicus and moon were moving circular the globe in space.

They thought the lord's day to be betwixt Venus and Mars. To explicate

the movement of the planets, still, was very difficult. Then ane

24-hour interval a young scientist named Copernicus at Krakow University in

Poland supposed that the sun and not the World should be the

eye of everything. He was the offset to explain properly our solar

system. The ancient Greeks had made the mistake of thinking that

considering the stars and planets seemed to move equally they looked at the

sky, the Earth must stand. If you saturday in a train and looked out at the

copse, information technology would exist easy to understand their error. The trees seem

to be moving backwards, only really it is the railroad train that is moving frontwards.

Conversation

Do 1.Answer the questions.

1. What field of science studies the miracle of superconductivity?

(physics) 2. What can a nation have if it is the first to

master this new field of science? (prestige, scientific advantage,

economic and war machine benefits) 3. What is superconductivity? (the

loss of electrical resistivity by a cloth on being cooled to temper-

atures nigh absolute zip) 4. What is absolute zero? (0 Kelvin or

-273 �C) 5. What scientists worked in the field of superconductivity

research? (Dutch physicist K. Onnes, Russian physicists Fifty. Landau

and Five. Ginzburg, and a number of American scientists) half-dozen. What

materials are the best super conductors? (ceramic materials)

vii. What are the potential technical uses of superconductivity? (nuclear

inquiry, power generation, electronics, etc.)

Exercise 2.Make a sentence out of the two parts.

1. Contempo achievements in superconductivity

inquiry are

two. They may be compared with

iii. Superconductivity is known

to

4. While carrying out his low

temperature research he

5. For 50 years subsequently the discovery

there was no

6. In the 1950s Russian and

American physicists fabricated a great

contribution

vii. Research in the field of superconductivity

became especially

agile

1. primal theory to explain

this unexpected miracle.

2. found the electrical resistivity

of mercury to disappear when

cooled to the temperature of 4

Kelvin.

3. to the development of superconductivity

theory.

four. have been discovered by a

Dutch physicist.

five. of great importance for scientific discipline

and technology.

half dozen. since the discovery of a superconductive

metallic ceramics.

seven. physics discoveries that led to

the development of electronics

and nuclear ability.

Exercise 3.Read and larn.

Professor Brown: Hello, glad to meet you, prof. Smith, haven't seen

yous for ages, since I left the University.

Prof. Smith: How do you do, prof. Brown, I haven't expected to

see you here. Are you interested in superconductivity

bug? Past the style, how are you making your

living? I haven't heard anything nigh your piece of work

lately. I spent the last two years in Geneva as a

member of a special Un committee.

Pr. �.: I am with Bell Telephone company. Information technology is a global

leader in electrical applied science. And I bargain with

new technologies.

Pr. S.: Oh, your work is so important present. Mankind needs energy

for producing light, heat and transportation. This is the

basis of our civilization.

Pr. �.: Certain, that's so. And equally the population grows, so does the demand

for better quality of life. Energy consumption increases

daily.

Pr. S.: But with information technology the threat to clean air, pure water and soil increases

as well. These natural resource are not inexhaustible.

Pr. �.: Of course. We are developing new industrial systems to amend

productivity, reducing the amount of raw materials and

free energy required. Our new advanced systems help to conserve

energy likewise.

Pr. S.: In Geneva i of the problems I studied was the problem to

generate, transmit and distribute energy with great efficiency.

I think Doctor Carter's work in this field is the most promising.

From the Agenda (�������� ���) we have all just received

you tin can come across that DocCarter will speak on his piece of work

tomorrow,

Pr.B.: I have already seen this paper on the program, 1 won't miss

(����������) information technology. Have yous attended the morn session?

Pr. S.: The most interesting was the discussion on the problems of

the balance betwixt the needs of mankind and the conservation

of the natural resources.

Pr. �.: Take you taken function in it?

Pr. Southward.: Certainly. I've spoken well-nigh clean and efficient applied science in

the field of electrical engineering.

Practise iv.Comment on the following statement.

The teaching routine procedures (���������� �������, �������������

� �������������� ��������) ought to be the master

aim of teaching.

Ane point of view : Routine makes life and experiments easier, it saves energy; experience

of past generations takes on the form of routine; routine helps us to avoid

risks; cheers to routine we don't have to rediscover things; routine ensures efficiency

while experimenting, information technology enables u.s. to accomplish a loftier level of predictabiUty.

A contrary point of view : Routine kills invention and discovery, it is contrary to

creativity; it is necessary to avoid routine so that the earth can be changed for the

better; young people ought to develop their imagination, but not larn routine; routine

is the verbal opposite of youthfulness; routine is slow; the all-time idea would be to combine

routine with improvisation.

Practise v.Conduct a round-tabular array word on �Superconductivity Enquiry

�.

Use texts xi A, B, � as a basis for the preparation of oral talks and discussion.

Useful words and phrases of scientific communication are given in exercise 5 (see Lesson

10 �Conversation�).

Exercise vi, Read and grinning.

For a long fourth dimension Edison's visitors wondered (����������) why

the gate (�������) to his garden was so difficult to open up.

In one case his friend said: �The gate to your garden is so heavy. I

have to use all my strength to open it. I cannot understand this.

You are such a bright man. You lot can invent something better�.

�The gate seems to be all right�, Edison answered with a smile.

�The fact is that it is a brilliant invention.� �You are laughing at

me, sir!� �No, I am non. The gate is connected to a pump. Everybody

who comes in pumps 20 litres of water out of the well

(�������).�

An absent-minded-minded (����������) professor was once travelling

by electric train, and when the conductor came the professor

couldn't find his ticket.

�It'due south all right, sir�, said the conductor who knew the professor

very well, �I'll come up at the next station�.

Simply at the adjacent station in that location was the same difficulty, the professor

couldn't find his ticket anywhere.

�It's all right, sir, information technology doesn't matter (�� ����� ��������)�, said

the conductor. �No, no I must find the ticket, I must know where

I'm going to!�

Text IIB

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Superconductivity is � land of matter that chemic elements,

compounds and alloys presume on beingness cooled to temperatures

about to absolute zero. Hence, a superconductor is a solid material

that abruptly loses all resistance to the menstruation of electrical current when

cooled below a feature temperature. This temperature differs

for different materials but generally is within the absolute zero

(-273 �C). Superconductors take thermal, electric and magnetic

properties that differ from their properties at college temperatures

and from properties of nonsuperconductive materials.

Now hundreds of materials are known to get superconductors

at depression temperature. Approximately 26 of the chemic elements

are superconductors. Among these are ordinarily known

metals such as aluminium, tin, pb and mercury and several less

common ones.

Almost of the known superconductors are alloys or compounds.

It is possible for a compound to be superconducting even if the

chemic elements constituting it are not.

Text l ie

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